Learn English Language: Lesson 51 - 55

Lesson 51

Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as man singer, manservant, woman servant, woman singer.

Lesson 52: Two methods in use for names with titles

As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreement among English writers. The title may be plural, as the Messrs. Allen, the Drs. Brown, the Misses Rich; or the name may be pluralized.

The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though the latter is often found; for example,

• Then came Mr. and Mrs. Briggs, and then the three Miss Spinneys, then Silas Peckham.
• Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the Earls of Denbigh, who drew their origin from the Counts of Hapsburgh.
• The Miss Flamboroughs were reckoned the best dancers in the parish.
• The Misses Nettengall's young ladies come to the Cathedral too.
• The Messrs. Harper have done the more than generous thing by Mr. Du Maurier.

Lesson 53: Domesticated words

A number of foreign words have been adopted into English without change of form. These are said to be domesticated, and retain their foreign plurals.

Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power so as to conform to English words. They are then said to be naturalized, or Anglicized, or Englished.

The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of them have a secondary English plural in -s or -es.

Lesson 54: Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc

Letters, figures, etc., form their plurals by adding -s or 's. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to their meaning, also add -s or 's; as, "His 9's (or 9s) look like 7's (or 7s)," "Avoid using too many and's (or ands)," "Change the +'s (or +s) to -'s (or -s)."

Lesson 55: Case Definition

Case is an inflection or use of a noun (or pronoun) to show its relation to other words in the sentence.

In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell," the word felon's modifies cell, and expresses a relation akin to possession; cell has another relation, helping to express the idea of place with the word in.

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Learn English Language: Lesson 46 - 50

Lesson 46

Some words have no corresponding singular.

• aborigines
• amends
• annals
• assets
• antipodes
• scissors
• thanks
• spectacles
• vespers
• victuals
• matins
• nuptials
• oats
• obsequies
• premises
• bellows
• billiards
• dregs
• gallows
• tongs

Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction of singular nouns. Notice the following:

• They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of a scissors can cut without the other.
• A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been a tongs.
• Besides this, it is furnished with a forceps.
• The air,—was it subdued when...the wind was trained only to turn a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in a bellows?

In Early Modern English thank is found.

• What thank have ye?

Lesson 47

Three words were originally singular, the present ending -s not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construed as plural: alms, eaves, riches.

Lesson 48: Two Plurals

A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning.

• brother—brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church).
• cloth—cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments).
• die—dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming).
• fish—fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds).
• genius—geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).
• index—indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra).
• pea—peas (separately), pease (collectively).
• penny—pennies (separately), pence (collectively).
• shot—shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired).

In speaking of coins, twopence,sixpence, etc., may add -s, making a double plural, as two sixpences.

Lesson 49: One plural, two meanings

Other words have one plural form with two meanings,—one corresponding to the singular, the other unlike it.

• custom—customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties.
• letter—letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature.
• number—numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines,
• I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came.
• Tell me not, in mournful numbers.

Numbers also means issues, or copies, of a periodical.

• pain—pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble,
• part—parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties.

Lesson 50: Two classes of compound words

Compound words may be divided into two classes:

(1) Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word. These make the last part plural.

• courtyard
• dormouse
• Englishman
• fellow-servant
• fisherman
• Frenchman
• forget-me-not
• goosequill
• handful
• mouthful
• cupful
• maidservant
• pianoforte
• stepson
• spoonful
• titmouse

(2) Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or phrase making a modifier. The chief member adds -s in the plural.

• aid-de-camp
• attorney at law
• billet-doux
• commander in chief
• court-martial
• cousin-german
• father-in-law
• knight-errant
• hanger-on

NOTE.—Some words ending in -man are not compounds of the English word man, but add -s; such as talisman, firman, Brahman, German, Norman, Mussulman, Ottoman.

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Learn English Language: Lesson 41 - 45

Lesson 41

Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that have the singular and plural alike; such as deer, sheep, swine, etc.

Other words following the same usage are, pair, brace, dozen, after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by the prepositions in, by, etc, they add -s): also trout, salmon; head, sail; cannon; heathen, folk, people.

The words horse and foot, when they mean soldiery, retain the same form for plural meaning; as,

• The foot are fourscore thousand, The horse are thousands ten.
• Lee marched over the mountain wall, Over the mountains winding down, Horse and foot, into Frederick town.

Lesson 42: Plurals formed by Adding -s or –es

Instead of -s, the ending -es is added

(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add -s and be pronounced. Such are box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz, etc.

If the word ends in a sound which cannot add -s, a new syllable is made; as, niche—niches, race—races, house—houses, prize—prizes, chaise—chaises, etc.

-Es is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this sound combines readily with -s, and does not make an extra syllable: cargo—cargoes, negro—negroes, hero—heroes, volcano—volcanoes, etc.

Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding -s, and some -es.

(2) If a word ends in -y preceded by a consonant (the y being then changed to i); e.g., fancies, allies, daisies, fairies.

Formerly, however, these words ended in -ie, and the real ending is therefore -s. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):

• The lilie on hir stalke grene. Of maladie the which he hadde endured.

And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):

• Be well aware, quoth then that ladie milde. At last fair Hesperus in highest skie Had spent his lampe.

(3) In the case of some words ending in -f or -fe, which have the plural in -ves: calf—calves, half—halves, knife—knives, shelf—shelves, etc.

Lesson 43

Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. When such words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go over to other classes.

Lesson 44

Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made plural when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same name; e.g., the Washingtons, the Americas.

Lesson 45

Some words are usually singular, though they are plural in form. Examples of these are, optics, economics, physics, mathematics, politics, and many branches of learning; also news, pains (care), molasses, summons, means: as,

• Politics, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art of government.
• So live, that when thy summons comes, etc.
• It served simply as a means of sight.

Two words, means and politics, may be plural in their construction with verbs and adjectives:

• Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by those means which we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in other respects.
• With great dexterity these means were now applied.
• By these means, I say, riches will accumulate.
• Cultivating a feeling that politics are tiresome.
• The politics in which he took the keenest interest were politics scarcely deserving of the name.
• Now I read all the politics that come out.

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Learn English Language: Lesson 36 - 40

Lesson 36

Our language has two numbers,—singular and plural. The singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, more than one.

Lesson 37

There are three ways of changing the singular form to the plural:

(1) By adding -en.

(2) By changing the root vowel.

(3) By adding -s (or -es).

The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in Old English, but in modern English -s or -es has come to be the "standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make its plural by adding -s or -es.

Lesson 38: Plurals formed by the Suffix –en

This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it was quite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, eyen (eyes), treen (trees), shoon (shoes), which last is still used in Lowland Scotch. Hosen is found in the King James version of the Bible, and housen is still common in the provincial speech in England.

Lesson 39: -En inflection imitated by other words

But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of the old words in -en by making a double plural.

Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was brothru, then brothre or brethre, finally brethren. The weakening of inflections led to this addition.

Children has passed through the same history, though the intermediate form childer lasted till the seventeenth century in literary English, and is still found in dialects; as,

• "God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see your childer get up like, and get settled."

Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular.

• In spite of wandering kine and other adverse circumstance.

Lesson 40: Plurals formed by Vowel Change

Examples of this inflection are,

• man—men
• foot—feet
• goose—geese
• louse—lice
• mouse—mice
• tooth—teeth

Some other words—as book, turf, wight, borough—formerly had the same inflection, but they now add the ending -s.

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